Geopolitics Review - 30th September 2024 - Hidden Wars: Sudan

A Never Ending Civil War

Contents

1. Introduction

2. The History of Sudan

3. First Sudanese Civil War

4. Second Sudanese Civil War

5. Concluding Remarks

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Bitesize Edition

• In a new series that I’ll call Hidden Wars, I’ll explore conflicts occurring around the world that don’t get the coverage they deserve. To start, I’ll cover the conflict in Sudan.

• Sudan has experienced two long-term civil wars, the first from 1955-1972, and the second from 1983-2005. Sudan’s recent history has also seen a leader who ruled for 30 years, the independence of South Sudan, an attempt to pivot to a system of democracy, and multiple coups that have direct implications on the civil war unfolding today.

• Today, I’ll explore how this volatile history set the scene for the conflict that is occurring in Sudan today, and how the key factions in the conflict rose to the battlefield.

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Introduction

Some conflicts around the world are covered in immense detail. Take the current conflict in the Middle East, for example. It is the defining narrative in the mainstream media. This strategy of having an overarching narrative, or singular story, in mainstream media coverage is seen frequently. As a consequence of this approach, stories that deserve just as much attention receive very little. One such area where this is prevalent is Sudan.

The country is currently embroiled in a civil war, the details of which are relatively unknown without deeper research. Hence today I’ll explore just that. Why does Sudan find itself in this situation based on its past? Let’s dive in.

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The History of Sudan

With the River Nile flowing through Sudan, its history is rich. Back when we couldn’t travel in cars and planes, many ancient civilisations were centred around the valuable necessity of water. The first documented activity in the area was related to the Kingdoms of Kush and Nubia, who traded with Ancient Egypt as far back as 2700 BC. Trade developed over the centuries, with the region rich in gold, incense, and hides. It wasn’t until 2100 BC that permanent settlements were built in the region. With Ancient Egypt existing for almost three millennia, they heavily influenced the region of Sudan in ancient history, and hence continue to today.

The region was controlled in the past by the Iranians, the Greeks, and the Romans. In the year 350, the Kingdom of Aksum existed in the East. They captured and destroyed the capital city of Meroe, thus marking the end of the Kingdom of Kush.

This led to the rise of three Kingdoms in modern-day Sudanese territory, Makuria, Nobatia and Alodia. In the sixth century, these Kingdoms converted to Christianity. Eventually, Nobatia was incorporated into Makuria, leaving only Makuria and Alodia. They were known as the Christian Nubian Kingdoms.

The Kingdoms were subjected to attacks from the Rashidun Caliphate in the middle of the 7th century. The Rashidun Caliphate was the first Caliphate to succeed the Prophet Muhammad, and they conquered Byzantine Egypt in 641. However, when the Caliphate came to attack the Nubian Kingdoms, they resisted. A non-aggression pact with an annual exchange of gifts was established, and independence was acknowledged. They experienced their Golden Age from the 8th to the 11th century, before the 12th century saw decline begin. By the 14th century, tribes had taken advantage of the decline. The 15th century likely marked the collapse of the Nubian Kingdoms.

In this period, it appears the Christian Nubian Kingdoms resisted the Islamic expansion around them. However, this wasn’t set to last. With the Middle East located in geographical proximity to Sudan, trade rose, along with Arab influence. Hence in the 1500s arose Sultanates, such as the Funj and Darfur Sultanates. These Sultanates existed for a few centuries.

In the 1800s, the Egyptians were rising in power under Ali Pasha. I discussed this during my series on the Balkans. In the 1820s, the Egyptians expanded to the south, wishing to take Sudan for security against rivals and to exploit its natural resources. Egypt and Ali Pasha did just this.

The Greek War of Independence occurred in 1833, and Ali Pasha in Egypt supported the Ottomans. In return, he wanted control of Syria. This was eventually attempted to be taken forcefully by the Egyptians after the Ottomans didn’t grant them this wish. This led to many wars between Egypt and the Ottomans. At this time, the Ottomans were in clear decline, and so the Egyptians under Ali Pasha were often successful in their aggressive moves against the Ottomans.

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Photo by Simon Berger on Unsplash

At the same time, discontent built in Sudan. The Mahdist Revolt started in 1881 and lasted close to two decades. This eventually resulted in the Ottoman-Egyptian regime being overthrown and the establishment of the Mahdist State. In 1898, this collapsed, but it highlighted the Sudanese hope of ousting foreign influence and control.

The British and Egyptians took joint control of Sudan at the turn of the century, until its independence in 1956. Since then, two civil wars and the rise of Omar al-Bashir have determined the direction of Sudan for the last seven decades.