Contents
Introduction
The History of Sudan
First Sudanese Civil War
Second Sudanese Civil War
Concluding Remarks
Bitesize Edition
In a new series that I’ll call Hidden Wars, I’ll explore conflicts occurring around the world that don’t get the coverage they deserve. To start, I’ll cover the conflict in Sudan.
Sudan has experienced two long-term civil wars, the first from 1955-1972, and the second from 1983-2005. Sudan’s recent history has also seen a leader who ruled for 30 years, the independence of South Sudan, an attempt to pivot to a system of democracy, and multiple coups that have direct implications on the civil war unfolding today.
Today, I’ll explore how this volatile history set the scene for the conflict that is occurring in Sudan today, and how the key factions in the conflict rose to the battlefield.
Introduction
Some conflicts around the world are covered in immense detail. Take the current conflict in the Middle East, for example. It is the defining narrative in the mainstream media. This strategy of having an overarching narrative, or singular story, in mainstream media coverage is seen frequently. As a consequence of this approach, stories that deserve just as much attention receive very little. One such area where this is prevalent is Sudan.
The country is currently embroiled in a civil war, the details of which are relatively unknown without deeper research. Hence today I’ll explore just that. Why does Sudan find itself in this situation based on its past? Let’s dive in.
The History of Sudan
With the River Nile flowing through Sudan, its history is rich. Back when we couldn’t travel in cars and planes, many ancient civilisations were centred around the valuable necessity of water. The first documented activity in the area was related to the Kingdoms of Kush and Nubia, who traded with Ancient Egypt as far back as 2700 BC. Trade developed over the centuries, with the region rich in gold, incense, and hides. It wasn’t until 2100 BC that permanent settlements were built in the region. With Ancient Egypt existing for almost three millennia, they heavily influenced the region of Sudan in ancient history, and hence continue to today.
The region was controlled in the past by the Iranians, the Greeks, and the Romans. In the year 350, the Kingdom of Aksum existed in the East. They captured and destroyed the capital city of Meroe, thus marking the end of the Kingdom of Kush.
This led to the rise of three Kingdoms in modern-day Sudanese territory, Makuria, Nobatia and Alodia. In the sixth century, these Kingdoms converted to Christianity. Eventually, Nobatia was incorporated into Makuria, leaving only Makuria and Alodia. They were known as the Christian Nubian Kingdoms.
The Kingdoms were subjected to attacks from the Rashidun Caliphate in the middle of the 7th century. The Rashidun Caliphate was the first Caliphate to succeed the Prophet Muhammad, and they conquered Byzantine Egypt in 641. However, when the Caliphate came to attack the Nubian Kingdoms, they resisted. A non-aggression pact with an annual exchange of gifts was established, and independence was acknowledged. They experienced their Golden Age from the 8th to the 11th century, before the 12th century saw decline begin. By the 14th century, tribes had taken advantage of the decline. The 15th century likely marked the collapse of the Nubian Kingdoms.
In this period, it appears the Christian Nubian Kingdoms resisted the Islamic expansion around them. However, this wasn’t set to last. With the Middle East located in geographical proximity to Sudan, trade rose, along with Arab influence. Hence in the 1500s arose Sultanates, such as the Funj and Darfur Sultanates. These Sultanates existed for a few centuries.
In the 1800s, the Egyptians were rising in power under Ali Pasha. I discussed this during my series on the Balkans. In the 1820s, the Egyptians expanded to the south, wishing to take Sudan for security against rivals and to exploit its natural resources. Egypt and Ali Pasha did just this.
The Greek War of Independence occurred in 1833, and Ali Pasha in Egypt supported the Ottomans. In return, he wanted control of Syria. This was eventually attempted to be taken forcefully by the Egyptians after the Ottomans didn’t grant them this wish. This led to many wars between Egypt and the Ottomans. At this time, the Ottomans were in clear decline, and so the Egyptians under Ali Pasha were often successful in their aggressive moves against the Ottomans.
At the same time, discontent built in Sudan. The Mahdist Revolt started in 1881 and lasted close to two decades. This eventually resulted in the Ottoman-Egyptian regime being overthrown and the establishment of the Mahdist State. In 1898, this collapsed, but it highlighted the Sudanese hope of ousting foreign influence and control.
The British and Egyptians took joint control of Sudan at the turn of the century, until its independence in 1956. Since then, two civil wars and the rise of Omar al-Bashir have determined the direction of Sudan for the last seven decades.
First Sudanese Civil War
Taking place from 1955 to 1972, the First Sudanese Civil War lasted over 16 years. It was fought between the northern regions of Sudan and what we now know as South Sudan. Prior to South Sudanese independence, this issue plagued the region for decades.
The conflict had started prior to Sudan’s independence from the Anglo-Egyptian colonial control, but the autonomy did see the conflict escalate as the power vacuum emerged with the British and Egyptians departing.
The North viewed the British and Egyptians more favourably than the South and thus blamed the conflict on the South’s grievances against the former British control. However, the South was underrepresented in the newly established government after independence and hence wanted to challenge the new ruling government. They were an ethnic and religious minority within the state of Sudan at the time and were undersupported by the government in Khartoum.
The conflict by some was marked in four stages. Guerrilla warfare led to the Anyanya insurgency. Political strife followed and then the South Sudan Liberation Movement was formed.
Of course, this is a simplified version of over 16 years of conflict. One thing that is clear, is that no solution was reached. The Addis Ababa Agreement was marked as a stalemate. The Southern Sudan Autonomous Region was established, but this period that provided some additional powers for the South was temporary. Sudanese President Gaafar Nimeiry abolished the region in June 1983 and hence emerged the Second Sudanese Civil War.
Second Sudanese Civil War
The Second Civil War lasted even longer than the first, occurring from 1983 to 2005, a period of 21 years!
The Islamic groups in the North were deemed unsupportive of the non-Islamic majority in the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region. Hence, President Nimeiry’s 1983 declaration stated all of Sudan was an Islamic state. The first action of the conflict saw the Sudanese military raid the towns of Bor and Pibor in South Sudan. The Sudan People’s Liberation Army was formed soon after to reestablish the South’s autonomy.
A coup in Sudan in 1985 changed the leadership, but the situation remained volatile. The 1983 constitution of Nimeiry’s presidency was suspended and a 1986 election handed power over to a civilian government.
Multiple peace attempts were made, but in 1989, we saw the rise of Omar al-Bashir. He replaced the government with the formation of his own military junta. Al-Bashir made himself a self-appointed President, Prime Minister, Chief of State, and Chief of the Armed Forces.
A 1992 offensive by Sudan saw the South lose much of the territory it had gained, and they lost control of the SPLA headquarters in Torit.
The situation remained volatile over the following decade, and the South was massively suppressed.
By 2001, the situation on the ground looked like this:
Red = Sudan Government
Dark Red = Government-Aligned Militias
Green = SPLA-N
Yellow = South Sudan Liberation Movement
Blue = Sudan People’s Liberation Army
In 2003, skirmishes continued but peace was being discussed. It was finally signed in Nairobi in January 2005.
Sudan’s Recent History
The terms of the peace deal marked autonomy for the South for six years before a referendum on independence was to be held in 2011. As we now know, this referendum passed, and South Sudan gained independence.
Although the South gained independence in 2011, the conflict continued in Sudan through the War in Darfur. The instability in the region saw multiple rebel and opposition groups arise which continue to exist today. Two such groups, the Sudan Liberation Movement and the Justice and Equality Movement, fought against the government in Sudan in 2003.
In 2006, the Darfur Peace Agreement was signed. However, the JEM rejected the agreement and fighting restarted a few months later. This trend of an agreement being made but not upheld is a key issue in this conflict that continues to rage today.
In 2009, the ICC issued an arrest warrant for Al-Bashir, but it would be another decade before Al-Bashir was finally no longer in control in Sudan.
In 2018, protests started over the economic issues within Sudan, and against authoritarian rule enforced by Al-Bashir over his 30-year rule. The Sudanese Revolution marked another coup in which Al-Bashir was removed from power and arrested. A few months later, the Khartoum Massacre took place under the Transitional Military Council and this saw Sudan suspended from the African Union.
Sudan still found itself in a period of chaos, but the ruling transitional government signed a Draft Constitution to undergo a 39-month transition to a civilian democracy. There were positive signs, but 2021 saw yet another coup, this time led by General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, the current leader of the Sudanese Armed Forces and de-facto leader in Sudan today. This coup was the trigger that saw Sudan once again devolve into a sequence of political crises and another civil war.
Concluding Remarks
Next week, I’ll discuss the current conflict that started in April 2023. I’ll dive into the key players in Sudan, the key international players, and the potential directions this conflict could head in.
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